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Aluminum (Al)
Common sources of bio-available aluminum include: aluminum cookware, flatware and especially coffee pots; aluminum hydroxide anti-acid formulations; some types of cosmetics, especially deodorants; some colloidal minerals and some herbs or herbal products. Aluminum cookware is particularly of concern if acid foods are cooked such as tomato paste (contains salicylates). In cosmetics and deodorants,aluminum chloride may be present as an astringent. In water purification, alum (sodium aluminum sulfate) may be used to coagulate dispersed solids and improve water clarity. Alumina or Al2O3 is very stable chemically and not bioavailable. Silica limits the solubility of aluminum and aluminum silicate is not very bioavailable. Clays, bentonite for example, contain aluminum that has poor bio-availabilty. Aluminum food containers are manufactured with polymer or plastic coatings that prevent direct food-aluminum contact provided such coatings are not damaged. In the GI tract, phosphates react with aluminum ions forming insoluble aluminum phosphates. If this phosphate-blocking were 100% efficient, then virtually no aluminum would be absorbed. Evidently, this phosphate-forming process is incomplete because body tissue levels (such as hair) usually contain measurable amounts of aluminum. In the body aluminum follows a path of increasing phosphate concentration: plasma, cytosol, cell nucleus. Once in the nucleus, it adversely affects protein formation. Long-lived cells such as neurons are susceptible to long-term accumulation. Aluminum is considered neurotoxic. Without intervention, aluminum accumulates continually in the body with the highest concentration occurring at old age or death. A hair element test can be used to corroborate increased body burden of aluminum. An oral provocation with the amino acid glycine, 80 mg/Kg body weight (in divided doses) 24 hours before a diagnostic EDTA chelation with subsequent urine collection can be done to confirm aluminum excess. (Eliminate food/beverage sources of Aluminum during this procedure.)
If you suspect that
you have an elevated aluminum level, it is important for you to know
that a simple blood test will determine recent exposure to aluminum,
but does not show long term exposure or total tissue levels of
aluminum. Here at Chelation Medical Center we can do a
IV chelation provoked challenge, with a urine collection which will show your
total body load of aluminum, as well as other heavy metals. It
is recommended to avoid drinking from aluminum containers or eating
food cooked in aluminum utensils for about three days prior to
testing for aluminum to demonstrate accurate tissue levels of toxic
aluminum. Just give us a call.
Arsenic (As)
Sources of arsenic include: contaminated foods (especially seafood), water or medications. Industrial sources of arsenic are: ore smelting/refining/processing plants, galvanizing, etching plating processes. Tailing from ore river bottoms near gold mining areas (past or present) may contain arsenic. Insecticides, rodenticides and fungicides (Na-, K- arsenites, arsenates, also oxides are commercially available). Commercial arsenic products include: sodium arsenite, calcium arsenate, lead arsenate and ”Paris green” which is cupric acetoarsenite, a wood preservative (arsenic pressure treated wood). Chronic exposure to or ingestion of arsenic causes tissue levels to gradually increase as arsenic binds to sulfur, phosphorus and selenium. An important detrimental effect of arsenic is inactivation of Lipoic acid, a vitamin cofactor needed for metabolism of Pyruvate and alpha-ketoglutarate. Symptoms consistent with mild or moderate arsenic exposure include: fatigue, malaise, eczema or allergic-like dermatitis, and garlic-like breath. Increased salivation may occur.
If you suspect that
you have an elevated Arsenic level, it is important for you to know
that a simple blood test is limited only determining recent exposure
to arsenic. It will not measure long term exposure or total
tissue levels of arsenic. Here at Chelation Medical Center we
can do a IV chelation provoked challenge, with a urine collection which will show
your total body load of arsenic, as well as other heavy metals.
It is recommended that you avoid eating fish for about four days
prior to being tested for arsenic levels to determine accurate
tissue levels of arsenic. Just give us a call.
Barium (Ba)
Barium has not been
established to be an essential nutritional element. Elevated levels
of Barium often are observed after exposure to Barium whic is used
as a contrast agent
during diagnostic medical tests such as "barium swallow”, ”upper GI
series”, ”barium enema”, etc. Elevated levels of Barium may interfere
with calcium metabolism and potassium levels. Acutely high intake
of soluble Barium salts (nitrates, sulfides, chlorides) can be toxic.
Chronic exposure to Barium
may be manifested by skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle stimulation, tingling
in the extremities, and
loss of tendon reflexes. Due to its high density, Barium is utilized to
absorb radiation and is utilized in concrete shields around nuclear
reactors and in plaster used to line x-ray rooms.
The main use of Barium in medicine is as a contrast medium.
Long-term retention of Barium can occur - granuloma of the traverse
colon has been reported after diagnostic use of Barium sulfate.
Crystalline Barium titanate is a ceramic compound which is used
in capacitors and transducers. Barium is also used to produce pigments
in paints and decorative glass. Soluble Barium compounds are highly
toxic and may be used as insecticides. Barium aluminates are utilized
for water purification, acceleration of concrete solidification,
production of synthetic zeolites, and in the paper and enamel
industries. Although Barium
is poorly absorbed orally (<5%) it can be very high in peanuts and
peanut butter (about 3,000 nanograms/gram) as compared to egg,
frozen and fast foods such as burgers, fries, and hot dogs (400-500
nanograms/gram). It is noteworthy that Barium intake is much higher in
children than adults (Health Canada 2005,
www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp24-c6.pdf).
Barium levels (and the levels of 16 other elements) in water can
be assessed with water testing. A confirmatory
test for elevated Barium is measurement of urine levels of Barium
after a chelation provocation, and blood electrolytes should be
checked as
hypokalemia (low potassium) may be associated with elevated Barium.
Cadmium (Cd)
Cadmium is
insidiously toxic with chronic accumulations affecting kidney
function, lungs, cardiovascular tissues, bone, and the
peripheral nervous system. Without intervention, the biological
half-life of Cadmium in humans exceeds 20 years (Harrison’s
Principles of Internal
Medicine, 13th ed, pp 2463-64).
Chronic manifestations associated with this degree of Cadmium
excess include: hypertension, weight loss, microcytic-hypochromic
anemia, lymphocytosis (excess white blood cells), proteinuria
(protein in the urine) with wasting of beta2 microglobulin,
emphysema and pulmonary fibrosis (if inhalation was a route of
contamination), atherosclerosis, osteomalacia, osteoporosis, lumbar
(lower back) pain, and
peripheral neuropathy. Acute inhalation of Cadmium dusts, fumes or
soluble salts may produce cough, pneumonitis and fatigue.
Manifestations of Cadium toxicity may be lessened or delayed by
an individual’s protective and detoxication capacities. Zinc and
vitamin E are protective; metallothionein and glutathione bind Cadmium
and help detoxify initially.
Smoking can be a source for as much as 0.1 mcg Cadmium per
cigarette (HEW Pub. No. NIOSH 76-192, US Govt. Printing Ofc., 1976).
Some medical authorities consider Cadmium to be a carcinogen for lung
cancer (Harrison’s Principles, 13th ed, op. cit. pp 2463). Other
occupational or environmental sources include: mining and smelting
activities, pigments and paints, electroplating, electroplated parts
(e.g., nuts and bolts), batteries (Ni-Cd), plastics and synthetic
rubber, photographic and engraving processes, old drums from some
copy machines,
photoconductors and photovoltaic cells, and some alloys used in
soldering and brazing. ”Cadmium Red” as used in dental acrylics
(dentures) could be a significant source of exposure for those
making dentures or dentists and dental technitians making fine tune
adjustments (grinding) to dentures chair side. Cadmium free acrylic
dentures are now available.
Cesium (Cs)
Cesium is a
naturally-occurring element found in rocks, soil and dust at low
concentrations. It is present in the environment only in the stable
form of 133 Cesium (the radioactive isotopes 134 Cesium and 137
Cesium are usually
not measured or reported). Cesium can be absorbed after oral
ingestion, upon breathing contaminated air and through contact with
the skin. Cesium is readily absorbed across the brush border of the
intestines in a manner similar to potassium and most is eventually
excreted through the urine and feces. The biological half life of
Cesium
in humans ranges from 15 days in infants to 100-150 days in adults.
Target organs of Cesium toxicity are the liver, intestine, heart,
and kidneys. Physiological effects of Cesium include ventricular
arrhythmias and displacement of potassium from muscle and
erythrocytes. Cesium can
have significant effects on both the central and peripheral nervous
systems. Cesium may cause epileptic seizures because it can share
the same receptor as the inhibitory neurotransmitter amino acid
glycine. Cesium can interfere with active ion transport by blocking
potassium channels and also can interfere with lipid metabolism.
Cesium
may modify plasma membrane integrity, alter cytoplasmic components
and cause cell damage.
It is unlikely that children or adults would be exposed to
enough 133 Cesium to experience any health effects that could be related
to the stable cesium itself. Animals given very large doses of
cesium compounds have shown changes in behavior, such as increased
activity or decreased activity, but it is highly unlikely that a
human would be exposed to enough stable cesium to cause similar
effects. Cesium is not
used extensively in industry but some uses are in the production of
photoelectric cells, vacuum tubes, spectrographic instruments,
scintillation counters and various optical and detecting devices. In
biochemistry, cesium chloride is used to extract DNA from cells.
The isotope 137 Cesium is used in radiation therapy for certain
types of cancer. Other medical uses of Cesium are monitoring left
ventricular function with 137 Cesium iodide probes and monitoring
pulmonary (lung) endothelial permeability with 137 Cesium iodide crystal
mini-detectors. It is emphasized that cesium measured
is 133 Cesium, not 137 Cesium. Environmental contamination by 137
Cesium as a
result of radioactive fallout could be a major concern, however,
little data is available on this matter.
Gadolinium (Gd)
Gadolinium is one
of the most abundant ”rare-earth” elements but is never found as a
free element in nature.
Gadolinium has no known biological role in humans.
Toxicity due to Gadolinium is rare due to its poor gastrointestinal
absorption (it is suspected that very little Gadolinium is absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract (<0.05%), similar to other rare earth metals)
and there is no information on the tissue distribution of Gadolinium. Most
likely Gadolinium is excreted slowly through the fecal and urinary routes.
If exposure to high enough doses and/or if absorption does occur,
symptoms of acute parenteral toxicity may develop, including
abdominal cramps, diarrhea, lethargy, muscular spasms, and even
eventual death due to respiratory collapse. Gadolinium salts can
cause irritation of the skin and eyes and are suspected to be
possible carcinogens. As reported by Perazella (2009)
Gadollinium-based contrast (GBC) agents have been linked on occasion
with a rare systemic fibrosing condition called nephrogenic systemic
fibrosis (NSF) and their use in patients with advanced kidney
disease should be avoided.
Gadolinium is often used in alloys, improving the workability and
resistance of metals (e.g. chromium, iron). Other technical uses
include the phosphors of color cathode-ray television tubes and in making
magnets and electronic components such as recording heads for video
recorders and in the manufacture of compact disks and computer
memory. In medicine Gadolinium, chelated with diethylenetriaminepentaacetic
acid (DTPA), is used as a non-radioactive contrasting agent in
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and has a half life in blood of about 90
minutes. It is also used in control rods for nuclear reactors and
power plants, in making garnets for microwave applications.
In vitro evidence suggests that EDTA may effectively bind to
Gadolinium therefore EDTA would be a good choice as a chelator for
Gadolinium.
Lead (Pb)
Sources of lead
include: old lead-pigment paints, lead acid batteries, industrial smelting and
alloying, some types of solders, ayruvedic herbs, some toys and
products from China, glazes on (foreign) ceramics, leaded (antiknock
compound) fuels, bullets and fishing sinkers, artist paints with
lead pigments, and leaded joints in some municipal water systems.
Most lead contamination occurs via oral ingestion of contaminated
food or water or by children mouthing or eating lead containing
substances. The degree of absorption of oral lead depends upon
stomach contents (empty stomach increases uptake) and upon the
body’s mineral status. Deficiency of zinc, calcium or iron may
increase lead uptake. Transdermal (skin) exposure is slight.
Inhalation has decreased significantly with almost universal use of
non-leaded automobile fuel.
Lead accumulates extensively in bone and inhibits formation
of heme and hemoglobin in erythroid precursor cells (blood cells). Bone lead can
be stored in bones for many years and is released to soft tissues
with bone remodeling that can be accelerated with growth, menopausal
hormonal changes and osteoporosis. Lead has physiological and
pathological effects on body tissues that may be manifested from
relatively low lead levels up to acutely toxic levels.
In children, developmental disorders and behavior problems
may occur at relatively low levels such as: loss of IQ, hearing loss,
and poor
growth. In order of occurrence with increasing lead concentration,
the following can occur: impaired vitamin D metabolism, initial
effects on erythrocyte and erythroid precursor cell enzymology,
increased erythrocyte protoporphyrin, headache, decreased nerve
conduction velocity, metallic taste, loss of appetite, constipation,
poor blood hemoglobin synthesis, colic, frank anemia, tremors,
nephrotoxic effects with impaired kidney excretion of uric acid,
neuropathy and encephalopathy (altered brain function and structure.
It is caused by diffuse
brain disease). At relatively low levels, lead can
participate in synergistic toxicity with other
toxic elements (e.g. cadmium, mercury).
.
If
you suspect that you have an elevated Lead level, it is important
for you to know that
whole blood
analysis can reflect only recent exposures and does not correlate
well with total body burden of lead.
Mercury (Hg)
Presentation of symptoms associated with excessive mercury can depend on many factors: the chemical form of absorbed Hg and its transport in body tissues, presence of other synergistic toxics (lead and cadmium have such effects), presence of disease that depletes or inactivates lymphocytes or is immunosuppressive, organ levels of xenobiotic chemicals and sulfhydryl-bearing metabolites (e.g. glutathione), and the concentration of protective nutrients, (e.g. zinc, selenium, vitamin E). Early signs of mercury contamination include: decreased senses of touch, hearing, vision and taste, metallic taste in mouth, fatigue or lack of physical endurance, and increased salivation. Symptoms may progress with moderate or chronic exposure to include: anorexia, numbness and paresthesias, headaches, hypertension, irritability and excitability, and immune suppression, possibly immune system dysfunction. Advanced disease processes from mercury toxicity include: tremors and incoordination, anemia,psychoses, manic behaviors, possibly autoimmune disorders, kidney dysfunction or failure. Mercury is commonly used in: dental amalgams, vaccines, explosive detonators; in pure liquid form for thermometers, barometers, and laboratory equipment; batteries and electrodes (”calomel”); and in fungicides and pesticides. The fungicide/pesticide use of mercury has declined due to environmental concerns, but mercury residues persist from past use. Methylmercury, the common, poisonous form, occurs by methylation in aquatic biota or sediments (both freshwater and ocean sediments). Methylmercury accumulates in aquatic animals and fish and is concentrated up the food chain reaching high concentrations in large fish and predatory birds. Except for fish, the human intake of dietary mercury is negligible unless the food is contaminated with one of the previously listed forms/sources. A daily diet of fish can cause 1 to 10 micrograms of mercury/day to be ingested, with about three-quarters of this (typically) as methylmercury. Depending upon body burden and upon type, duration and dosage of detoxifying agents, elevated urine mercury may occur after administration of: DMPS, DMSA, D-penicillamine, or EDTA. Elemental analysis of hair can be a secondary corroborating test for mercury burden. Blood and especially blood cell analyses are only useful for diagnosing very recent or ongoing organic (methyl) mercury exposure.
Nickel (Ni)
Urinary excretion
of nickel bound to cysteinyl or thiol compounds (such as
glutathione) or to amino acids (histidine, aspartic acid, arginine)
is the predominant mode of excretion. With the exception of specific
occupational exposures, most absorbed nickel comes from food or
drink, and intakes can vary by factors exceeding 100 depending upon
geographical location, food type, and water supply.
Depending upon chemical form and physiological factors, from
1 to 10% of dietary nickel may be absorbed from the gastrointestinal
tract into the blood. Urine reflects recent exposure to nickel and
may vary widely in nickel content from day to day due to the above
factors. Sources of
nickel are numerous and include the following.
. Cigarettes (2 to
6 mcg Nickel per average cigarette)
. Diesel exhaust
(particulates may contain up to 10 mg/gram Nickel)
. Foods,
especially: cocoa, chocolate, soya products, nuts, and hydrogenated
oils
. Nickel-cadmium
batteries
. Nonprecious,
semiprecious dental materials
. Nickel-containing
prostheses
. Electroplating,
plated objects, costume jewelry
. Pigments (usually
for ceramics or glass)
. Catalyst
materials (for hydrogenation processes in the food, petroleum and
petrochemical industries)
. Arc welding
. Nickel refining
and metallurgical processes
Most clinically
observed nickel contaminations are manifested as dermatoses –
contact dermatitis and atopic dermatitis. However, Nickel
hypersensitizes the immune system causing hyperallergenic responses
to many different substances. Because Nickel can displace zinc from
binding sites on enzymes, it can have inhibiting or activating
effects on such enzymes. Nickel sensitivity is observed to be three
to five times more frequent in women than in men.
Other laboratory tests or clinical findings that would be
indicative of Nickel excess are; hair element analysis, presentation
of multiple allergic sensitivities, dermatitis, positive patch test
for ”Ni allergy”, proteinuria, hyperaminoaciduria (by 24-hour urine
amino acid analysis). Detoxification treatments with administration
of EDTA or sulfhydryl agents (DMPS, DMSA, D-penicillamine) may
increase urine nickel levels depending upon: body burden and
mobility in tissues, duration of treatment, dosage and other
factors.
Platinum (Pt)
Platinum is a
nonessential element that can be found at elevated concentrations in
urine with excessive exposure. Industrial workers exposed to
Platinum showed higher concentrations in the blood and urine (> 2 μg
Platinum/24 hours) in comparison to non-exposed workers.
Platinum is poorly absorbed in the gut but may be absorbed via
inhalation. Since it is a relatively rare element, most Platinum exposures
are of occupational origin. In recent years, there may have been a
slight increase in environmental Platinum due to the use of Platinum as a
catalyst in automobile exhaust converters. Platinum is a byproduct of
copper refining and used as an alloy in dental and orthopedic
materials. Symptoms of excess
Thallium (Tl)
Thallium can
be assimilated transdermally (through the skin), by inhalation, or
by oral ingestion. Both valence states can have harmful effects:
Thallium+1 may displace potassium from binding sites and influences enzyme
activities; Thallium+3 affects RNA and protein synthesis. Thallium leaves
blood plasma rapidly and is readily transported between body organs
and tissues. It can be deposited in kidneys, pancreas, spleen,
liver, lungs, muscles, neurons and brain. Blood is not a reliable
indicator of thallium status.
Symptoms of thallium contamination are often delayed. Early
signs of chronic, low-level contamination may include: mental
confusion, fatigue, and peripheral neurological signs: tingling
sensations,
muscle aches, tremors and ataxia (loss of voluntary muscle control,
resulting in lack of balance and coordination ). After 3 to 4 weeks, diffuse hair loss
with sparing of pubic and body hair and a decreased density of eye-
brows usually occurs. Increased salivation occurs less commonly.
Longer term or residual symptoms may include: hair loss, ataxia,
tremor, memory loss, weight loss, protein in the urine, and possibly
psychoses. Ophthalmologic neuritis and strabismus may be presented.
Environmental and occupational sources of thallium include:
contaminated drinking water, airborne plumes or waste streams from
lead and zinc smelters, photoelectric, electrochemical and
electronic components (photoelectric cells, semiconductors, infrared
detectors, switches), pigments and paints, colored glass and
synthetic gem manufacture, and industrial catalysts used in some
polymer chemistry processes.
Hair (pubic or scalp) element analysis is an excellent
corroborative test for suspected thallium excess. Although urine is
the primary natural route for excretion of thallium, the fecal route
also contributes. Therefore, fecal metals analysis provides a
confirmatory test for exposure to, and excretion of thallium. Other
clinical findings that would be consistent are: albuminuria, EEG
with diffuse abnormalities, hypertension, and elevated urine
creatinine phosphokinase (CPK).
Thorium (Th)
Because most
thorium salts are excreted via urine, a high urine thorium level
indicates exposure and probably increased body burden of this
element. Thorium is considered mildly toxic for two reasons,
low-level radioactivity and slight biochemical toxicity.
Thorium is a radioactive element having 7 isotopes with half
lives that exceed one hour. Thorium 232 constitutes 99% of the naturally
occurring thorium and this is the isotope measured. Thorium 232 has a
halflife of 1.4x10 to the tenth years. It decays by alpha emission
to produce radon, Radon 228. In turn Radon 228 (half life 6.7 years) decays
to other radioactive isotopes, eventually reaching lead. This
radioactive decay process produces alpha, beta and gamma emissions.
Several decades ago, a thoria (Thorium O2) suspension (”Thorotrast”) was
used diagnostically as a radiopaque agent. After a long period of
latency, an unusually high proportion of individuals who received
this procedure have developed leukemias, granulomas, and malignant
liver tumors. These are slowly-developed diseases often with 20-30
year periods before onset or definite diagnosis.
The biochemical effects of thorium are mild. Reactive thorium
salts at high levels may inhibit amylase and phosphatase enzymes.
Most orally ingested thorium, if not excreted in urine, binds to
bone tissue where it has a long biological half-life (years). There
is a literature report for abnormal lymphocytes in animals following
a thorium challenge.
Thorium has about the same abundance in the earth as does lead and
is encountered in mining activities for titanium and rare earth
elements. Commercially, thorium is used in incandescent gas lantern
mantles, refractory materials (thorium melts at 3300 degrees C), and as a
coating for tungsten in electronic applications. It is present in
nuclear fuels (Uranium 235 decays to Thorium 231).
Thorium may also be present in tungsten-inert-gas (”TIG”)
welding electrodes.
Tin (Sn)
Urine accounts for
at least 80% of excreted Tin that is ingested and absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract. Ingested Tin is not significantly absorbed
if it is an inorganic form. Oxide coatings readily form on metallic
Tin, and salts can quickly oxidize making them insoluble. Organic
Tin, however, is bioavailable and more readily absorbed. Some
organic Tin compounds such as short-chain alkyltins can be absorbed
transdermally and can cause degeneration of myelin. Food and drink
usually provide small daily intakes of (nontoxic) Tin, with amounts
depending upon type of food, packaging, quality of drinking water
and water piping materials. Total daily intake is expected to vary
from about 0.1 to 15 milligrams. Tin is present in many metal alloys
and solders; bronze, brass and pewter contain the element. Dyes,
pigments and bleaching agents often contain Tin. Anticorrosion
plating of steel and electrical components may also use Tin. ”Tin
cans” are Tin-plated steel with a thin outer oxide layer allowing
the surface to be shiny but inert.
Modern food-containing cans usually have polymer coatings
that prevent food-metal contact. In the past some toothpastes
contained stannous fluoride, a soluble fluoride source for
strengthening tooth enamel. Currently most brands of fluoridated
toothpastes contain sodium fluoride. Organic Tins, the usually toxic
forms, are: biocides triphenyltin
and alkyltins) used against rodents, fungi, insects and mites;
curing agents for rubbers and silicones (dialkyltin); and methyltin
formed bacteriologically (similar to methylmercury). Mildly elevated
levels of Tin in urine may reflect sporadic dietary intake and
excretion; there may be no associated symptoms. A two- or three-fold
increase in urine Tin levels is not uncommon following
administration of EDTA or with sulfhydryl agents (DMSA,
D-penicillamine, DMPS). Early signs of chronic organic Tin excess
can be: reduced sense of smell, headaches, fatigue and muscle aches,
ataxia and vertigo. Hyperglycemia and glucosuria are reported. Also,
for organic Tin exposure, there can be irritation of contacted
tissues (eyes, skin, bronchial tubes, or GI tract). Later, immune
dysfunction may occur with reduced lymphocytes and leukocytes; mild
anemia may occur. Tin is
commonly elevated in urine from autistic patients following
administration of EDTA, DMSA or DMPS.
Uranium (Ur)
Uranium is a
radioactive element having 10 isotopes with half lives that exceed
one hour. Uranium 238 constitutes about 99% of the naturally-occurring
Uranium and this is the isotope measured. Uraunium 238 has a half life of
4.5 X 10 to the ninth years. Uranium 238 decays by alpha emission to produce
thorium, Thorium 234, the initial step in a decay chain that eventually
leads to lead. Alpha, beta and gamma emissions occur during this
decay process. Because of the very long half life, the radioactivity
danger is only slight. However, exposure to enriched or nuclear fuel
grade Uranium (high in Uranium 235) does pose a health hazard. The measured
result (Uranium 238) does not reflect or imply exposure to enriched
Uranium. The major
concern for (natural) Uranium excess is chemical toxicity rather
than radiological.
Uranium is a chemically-reactive element, has four valences (3,4,5
or 6), and may combine with:
carbonate, phosphate, citrate, pyruvate, malate, lactate,
etc. in body tissues. When not excreted in urine, Uranium may accumulate
in the kidneys, spleen, liver, and in bone (substituting for calcium
in hydroxyapatite). Uranium is nephrotoxic, causing damage to the
glomeruli and proximal tubules of the kidneys.
An early sign of Uranium excess is general fatigue. Kidney
damage is reflected by excess protein, amino acids, or glucose in
the urine. Albuminuria and
urinary catalase are findings consistent with Uranium excess.
Elevated hair Uranium is a confirmatory finding; whole blood and
fecal analyses may corroborate recent or ongoing exposures.
Uranium is more common than mercury, silver or cadmium in the
earth’s rock strata, and may be present, at low levels, in ground
(drinking) water. Most commercial use of Uranium is for nuclear
fuel, but it may be present in ceramics or colored glass, especially
ancient or antique, yellow-colored glass.
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